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The purpose of this review is to describe the research to date on the housing and management of dairy cows in group maternity areas.
Sources
We used a review of the peer-reviewed literature to identify articles that included an experimental study using dairy cows kept in groups at calving. Our review also includes studies from the broader literature using cows kept in individual maternity pens, dry cows, lactating cows, and beef cattle.
Synthesis
Housing cows in group maternity areas creates unique challenges compared with housing cows in individual pens. Advantages to calving in group pens include limited pen moves, reduced risk that cows calve in freestalls, and potentially improved labor efficiency. Disadvantages of group maternity areas include the limited ability of cows to express natural behaviors before calving such as seclusion from pen mates, the risk of the calf being nursed by the wrong dam, a lack of space for cows as they prepare to give birth, social instability caused by regrouping, and challenges with pen cleanliness.
Conclusions and Applications
Research to date has focused on creating opportunities for isolation-seeking behavior for dairy cows in group maternity areas. Cows in group pens are motivated to seek isolation at calving, but the ability to do so can be limited by competition. Research is still needed to determine potential negative effects of high stocking density and frequent regrouping in group maternity areas on cow behavior and health.
Designing a maternity area for dairy cattle requires knowledge of cows’ natural calving behaviors, as well as risk factors for poor health of cows and calves after parturition. For the purposes of this review, the “maternity pen” refers to any area where a cow gives birth to her calf. For farms that use a designated maternity area, there are 2 main types: individual and group maternity areas. Individual areas allow one cow giving birth in a separated area, and group areas allow for more than one cow to give birth. There are advantages and disadvantages of both maternity area types (previously reviewed by
); however, this review will focus on research to date on the housing and management of dairy cows in “group maternity areas,” defined for this purpose as any loose-housing area (e.g., bedded pack, dry lot, pasture, and so on) where multiple cows are housed together during labor.
Maternity area design and management is highly variable throughout the world, and recommendations for maternity areas vary by country. For example, in Denmark it is required by law that cows be moved into individual maternity pens for calving (Denmark by Ministry of Environment and Food of Denmark, Danish Veterinary and Food Administration, Law number. 520, Chapter 4, 26/05/2010). The Canadian Dairy Code of Practice recommends that cows be housed in individual or group maternity areas with “adequate space per cow,” although no definition for “adequate space” is provided (
). Some research in the United States and Canada has gathered data on maternity area types; for example, only 50 to 70% of farms in the United States and Canada report using a dedicated maternity area for cows to give birth (Quebec:
) found that 58.7% of farms reported using group maternity areas, 48.6% used individual pens, and 22.7% of farms had a calving area listed as “other.” Survey data from Canada found that 25.4% of farms use tiestalls for calving, although the authors strongly discouraged this practice (
We reviewed of the peer-reviewed literature using Google Scholar and the following search terms: “dairy cow,” “maternity,” “calving,” and “group.” From the search results, we narrowed the papers down to those published since 1980 and those that included an experimental study using cows kept in groups at calving in a loose-housing system. This search criteria resulted in 15 experimental papers:
Is an individual calving pen better than a group calving pen for preventing transmission of Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis in calves? Results from a field trial..
). Our review includes these manuscripts as well as the broader literature including studies using beef cows, lactating cows, as well as those kept in freestalls during the precalving period, and those kept in individual maternity pens during labor.
We argue that cows kept in group maternity areas face unique challenges that are different from those kept in individual pens during parturition. Advantages of keeping cows in group maternity areas include limited pen moves, reduced risk of calving in freestalls, and potentially improved labor efficiency (i.e., farm employees not having to physically move cows into individual pens). Disadvantages of group maternity areas include (1) a limited ability to express natural behaviors before calving such as seclusion from pen mates, (2) the risk of the calf being nursed by the wrong dam (mis-mothering), (3) high stocking density and a lack of space for cows as they prepare to give birth, (4) social instability caused by regrouping, and (5) ensuring pen cleanliness to prevent the risk of disease later in dams and their calves. The following sections will review these challenges and offer recommendations for how to manage and design group maternity areas to mitigate these challenges.
DRY COW AND MATERNITY HOUSING AND MANAGEMENT
During the dry period, cows are typically housed in bedded packs, dry lots, pasture, freestalls, or tiestalls (
). On some farms, cows are moved into a close-up area approximately 21 d before their expected calving date, whereas others keep cows in the same area for the entire dry period. This close-up or dry cow area may also serve as the group maternity area, as cows are kept in same area until they give birth. In other cases, cows are moved into a group maternity area closer to calving. The stocking densities of these close-up and maternity pens are likely variable; however, there is limited research on stocking densities of these pens.
There are 2 main grouping strategies for group maternity areas: (1) an all-in-all-out approach, where a group of cows are moved into the pen at once and remain together until calving, and (2) a dynamic approach, where new cows enter the maternity area once or multiple times per week (
). All-in-all-out pens may be used less commonly than dynamic pens due to space constraints but may provide some benefit to parturient cows because stable social groups are not disrupted from regrouping (
A main advantage of group maternity areas is that cows remain in the pen to give birth and do not need to be moved into a separate, individual maternity area. Although individual maternity areas also have advantages, the cow must be moved from the group pen either before or during labor (just in time), which may interfere with the normal progression of labor (
). The timing of cow movement into the individual pen is an important consideration, as moving cows into individual maternity pens too early may cause unwanted health consequences (
) but waiting to move cows too close to calving increases the risk that cows will give birth in unwanted areas such as the freestall.
Location of the maternity area in the barn is also important. Regardless of housing type, maternity areas are sometimes located in high traffic areas to increase monitoring capabilities of cows during labor. Proper supervision of cows during parturition is important to ensure that cows with dystocia can be properly assisted; however, research with beef cattle suggests that excessive supervision can increase the risk of dystocia (
), which can include human activity and noises associated with farm activity.
COW BEHAVIOR BEFORE CALVING
Understanding cows’ maternal behavior before calving in natural environments is important to help us better house and manage cows in group maternity areas. For wild ungulates, calf survival is dependent on the formation of the cow-calf bond because the calf is reliant on the cow for nutrition and protection from predators (
). Dairy cows are typically separated from their calves soon after birth on commercial farms, although the justification for this early separation has recently been extensively reviewed and criticized (
). Despite spending little time with their calves after birth, it has been well documented that dairy cows perform a suite of calving behaviors as calving approaches (reviewed by
Separation from conspecifics at parturition is commonly observed in wild ungulates, beef cattle, and dairy cows and is suggested to be driven by the motivation to hide their calf from predators and other cows (see review
found that dairy cows increase their distance to herdmates as calving approaches and prefer a calving site that is dry with soft ground covering and natural overhead protection. Similarly,
provided heifers and cows with a choice between calving indoors and in 1-ha paddock and found that most animals preferred to calve indoors (74 of 95). However, calving location preference varied with time of day; more cows calved in the paddock at nighttime (17 of 53) compare with daytime (4 of 42). Beef cows on range that lacked coverage from tall grasses and trees separated themselves from herdmates at a distance of 12 to 1,250 m at calving, much longer distances than they would normally separate when not giving birth, and moved further if they were disturbed by other cows during labor (
) give birth away from the herd when vegetative cover is available but give birth within the herd when there are no opportunities to visually isolate from herdmates. Results from these studies suggest that isolation seeking in wild ungulates is a plastic motivation driven by the environmental features.
Table 1Description of preparturient isolation-seeking behavior in dairy cattle
). Most cows (79%) chose to calve behind the plywood barrier compared with the uncovered half of the pen. The design of the hiding space in individual maternity pens may matter, depending on pen type and the cow’s duration of labor (
found that cows with normal labor duration had no preference for barrier shape in individual maternity pens (tall and narrow, low and wide, and tall and wide). However, cows with a significantly longer than normal duration of labor chose to calve in the secluded areas with the highest amount of coverage. When separating, cows may be trying to avoid human activity and other disturbances that could be perceived as threats or disrupt the progression of labor (
). However, these studies used cows kept alone in individual pens during labor; providing opportunities for cows to isolate in group maternity areas may be more challenging.
Some research has attempted to create opportunities for cows to isolate from pen mates in group maternity areas (e.g.,
). Hiding spaces created for cows in this group of studies have used similar “L” shaped cubicle hides (providing 3 fully covered walls and 1 partially covered wall that offers access to a group pen) with minor changes. For example,
found that when pairs of cows were housed in a maternity pen with a shelter, the first cow of the pair to calve avoided the shelter but also increased their distance from their partner as calving approached. In a study with multiple cows in the pen,
found that approximately 50% of cows calved in a hide. Although the design of the hides were similar in both studies, the ratio of cow:hide was different;
used 1:1. Thus, competition over hides may affect a cow’s use of the space. To ensure cows are able isolate at calving if they are motivated to do so, an effort should be made to limit competition over resources by providing sufficient resources per cow.
Ideally, parturient cows in a group maternity area could choose whether to isolate from pen mates at calving and should not experience disturbances by other cows if they choose to isolate.
provided cows in a group maternity area with access to 2 types of “L” shaped cubicle hides secured to the outside wall of the group pen: a gated pen, where cows were trained to push through a gate to obtain access to the pen (the cow could also leave the pen, but once she entered the pen, the gate locked behind her so no other cows could join her), or an ungated individual pen, where the gates were left open at all times. Approximately half of the cows calved in the individual pens rather than the group area, but cows were more likely to use an individual pen to calve if it was ungated and if they were bold or dominant and were less likely to use an individual pen if there was an alien calf in the pen. These results suggest that some cows will self-isolate when giving birth, but they are less willing to navigate through an obstruction such as a gate. Maternity areas should be designed to accommodate these different preferences.
In addition to seeking seclusion, cows’ calving site selection may be influenced by the presence of odors and pheromones of birth fluids from other cows. For example,
found that 90% of cows calved within one cow length (estimated 2.5 m) of where a previous calving occurred. A follow-up study found that 79% of cows that calved in a group maternity area calved within a 1.25-m radius of their own or an alien cow’s birth fluids (
). Results from these studies suggest cows are attracted to their own and alien birth fluids before calving, and olfactory cues may be important during calving site selection.
Restlessness During Labor
In addition to isolation seeking, there is ample evidence from cows kept indoors and outdoors that cows become more restless as labor approaches, characterized by more steps and higher transitions from standing to lying during the 24 h before calving compared with previous days (
). These transitions and steps may be driven by pain associated with labor, as cows likely experience pain associated with both uterine and abdominal contractions (
compared the behavior of cows kept in deep-bedded straw packs and those in freestalls during the 4 wk before calving and found that cows in packs had more lying bouts and faster transition times from lying to standing compared with those in freestalls. These authors and others suggest that straw bedding may provide better traction for cows to transition between lying and standing postures compared with harder surfaces (
found that animals provided access to deep-bedded straw packs had more lying bouts in the 24 h before calving and faster labors compared with those kept in freestalls, despite the fact that both groups were housed in similar individual maternity pens during labor. In agreement with these findings,
found that cows kept on pasture had more lying bouts compared with those kept in freestalls. These findings suggest that providing group-housed cows with pasture or deep-bedded packs before and during labor may improve comfort over more restrictive environments such as freestalls.
SOCIAL INTERACTIONS WITH ALIEN COWS AND CALVES AT CALVING
Isolation-seeking behavior in cows and other ungulates is thought to be partially driven by the cow separating from conspecifics to help facilitate the development of the bond with their calf (reviewed by
). Some research has explored social behaviors between cows during labor. For example, beef cattle with newborn calves have been found to distance themselves further from pregnant cows than cows that already have a calf, possibly attempting to reduce unwanted attention from these soon-to-be mothers (
and found the cows that calved in the gated hides spent less time interacting with pen mates in the hour following calving (0.5 vs. 28 min/h) compared with those that calved in the group area. Authors concluded that this type of design may help cows avoid disturbance from pen mates during labor.
Group maternity areas may also increase social interactions between cows and alien calves after birth. In a study of cows in a group maternity area, the majority of pregnant cows (14 of 16) spent time licking a newborn alien calf within the first 6 h of its birth (
) were observed suckling alien cows in group maternity areas. Creating a secluded area in the group pen may reduce interactions between cows and alien calves. For example, in the same study where
provided cows in group maternity areas with gated individual pens after calving, authors also found that calves born in the gated pens experienced less interaction from alien cows compared with those born in the ungated individual pens and the group pen area. Although there is limited research on the effect of the calving environment on cow-calf interactions, there is a growing interest in creating environments where dams can have some contact with their calves after calving (e.g.,
). Research is encouraged to evaluate the effects of secluded environments on both the cow and her calf after birth.
STOCKING DENSITY
To date, research on stocking density has focused primarily on lactating or dry cows kept in freestalls. For example, increased stocking density above 100% is associated with a higher risk of hock injuries and lameness (
reported that overstocking (200% stocking: 0.5 lying stalls per cow and 34.5 cm of linear feed bunk space per cow) increased levels of circulating nonesterified fatty acids compared with 100% stocking density (1 lying stall per cow and 68.5 cm of linear feed bunk space per cow). Elevated nonesterified fatty acid levels are an indicator of adipose mobilization and metabolic health, which has been linked to postpartum disease (
Evaluation of nonesterified fatty acids and β-hydroxybutyrate in transition dairy cattle in the northeastern United States: Critical thresholds for prediction of clinical diseases..
). In contrast, a study using close-up Jersey cows housed at 80 versus 100% stocking density did not find any physiological or health differences between treatments (
). The results of these studies may differ due to breed or the intensity of the overstocking; for example, cows may be better able to cope with lower stocking densities (e.g., 80–100%) compared with higher densities (e.g., 200%).
Increasing stocking density before calving can also affect social behavior. For example,
found that cows kept in freestalls before calving that were overstocked at electronic feed bins (2:1 cow:feed bins) precalving had over twice as many physical displacements from the feed bins compared with those not overstocked (1:1 cow:feed bins). Similarly, cows housed at 80% stocking density (both lying and feed-bunk space) experienced fewer displacements from the feed bunk and spent more time lying down near parturition compared with those housed at 100% stocking density (
Stocking density of group maternity areas is highly variable, as it depends on the combination of space allowance, cow movement in and out of the pen, and calving rate (the number of cows calving per given time period). Stocking density should be calculated at both the feed bunk and the usable lying space. Space allowance for these areas is likely fixed on most herds due to space constraints, but calving rate can vary over time (see
, for a detailed review of sizing dry cow pens). Space allowance is likely easier to control in all-in-all-out pens because new cows are not added to the pen as they are in dynamic pens, but space in both pen types may be a challenge.
recommends building maternity areas to accommodate 120 to 150% of the average calving rate. Although constructing pens in this manner would lead them to be understocked at most times, this method would prevent overstocking of cows during periods of high calving rates. To our knowledge, no research has assessed the effect of high stocking density in group maternity areas. Despite this lack of research, we recommend at least 13 m2 of lying space per cow, although >16 m2 may better allow the cow to seek seclusion if needed (
; see Figure 1 for an example of different stocking densities used in group calving pens). Research is strongly encouraged to better understand the effects of reduced space allowance on cow and calf behavior and health after calving in group maternity areas.
Figure 1Cows in a group maternity area with 9.7 m2 per cow (A) and 19.3 m2 per cow (B).
Moving cows between social groups (regrouping) is a common management practice in dairy production. Cows are moved between pens based on stage of lactation, dietary needs, and reproductive status. Due to these factors, the majority of pen moves occur during the period around calving, resulting in up to 5 pen moves in a period of under 5 wk (
The effects of social exchange between two groups of lactating primiparous heifers on milk production, dominance order, behavior and adrenocortical response..
). However, depending on the frequency of regrouping in group maternity areas, cows may be constantly engaging in agnostic interactions with their pen mates.
Research using cows kept in freestalls before calving has found some effects of regrouping on cow health and behavior. For example,
found that cows moved into a new pen during the close-up period had 9% lower DMI and rumination time, as well as higher agonistic interactions, on the day of regrouping compared with previous days. A series of studies documented the effect of dynamic (moving cows into a close-up pen weekly) versus all-in-all-out housing for close-up Jersey cows (
found that agonistic behaviors were lower in all-in-all-out pens than in dynamic pens, but there were no differences in physiological or health outcomes between the treatments (
suggested that controlled studies on regrouping close-up cows may not be able to detect negative effects of regrouping when combined with other stressors such as overstocking. Indeed, in a study of mid-lactation cows in freestalls,
found when stocking density was decreased at regrouping, the number of displacements at the feed bunk decreased and lying time increased. Also in support of this idea,
found that close-up cows exposed to a combination of stressors (2:1 cow:feed bins as well as unpredictable social and feeding environments) had higher blood concentrations of nonesterified fatty acids and tumor necrosis factor-α and were more likely to be diagnosed with endometritis after calving compared with those in a more predictable environment (1:1 cow:bin without unpredictable social and feeding environments;
More research is needed to determine the effect of regrouping on the behavior of dairy cows kept in group maternity areas. However, based on research using freestall pens and recommendations by
, there may be benefits to reducing the frequency of regrouping events in group maternity areas to no more than once per week.
HYGIENE OF THE GROUP MATERNITY AREA AND RISK OF DISEASE
Immediately after birth is a high-risk period for cows and calves. An estimated 30 to 50% of cows experience metabolic (e.g., ketosis and hypocalcemia) or infectious disease (e.g., metritis and mastitis) after calving (see
, for a review). Additionally, calf health is often compromised in the few days after birth; for example, in the United States, it has been reported that 5.6% of dairy heifer calves die within the first 48 h after birth (
). Ensuring the environment where the calf is born is clean is essential to limit the transmission of disease to both the dam and her calf.
Wet and dirty substrate in maternity areas potentially increases disease risk for cows and calves after calving. Regular cleaning and disinfection of maternity areas can potentially reduce disease incidence for fresh cows and calves. For example, a survey study found farms with maternity areas that were not disinfected after each calving had higher rates of clinical mastitis than farms that sometimes or always cleaned their maternity areas between each calving (
found that Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis–positive farms were able to effectively control paratuberculosis with maternity area disinfection. Some research has also found associations between maternity area type (group or individual) and disease incidence in calves (
). Calves born in individual maternity areas in medium size herds (100–199 cows) had lower risk of diarrhea and calves born in individual maternity areas had lower risk for respiratory disease than calves born in group maternity areas (
). However, more recently, a clinical trial found that calves born in group maternity areas were not at higher risk of diarrhea, pneumonia, or morbidity as compared with calves born in individual calving pens (
). The link between maternity area type and calf disease is unclear, but it may be related to frequency of pen cleaning and not maternity area type. Proper pen management may be more important to reducing infectious disease than maternity area type, with an emphasis on cleaning maternity areas regularly.
The rate of cleaning maternity areas across dairy operations is highly variable. For example,
found that less than half of herds that used individual maternity pens cleaned after every calving, with the majority of producers cleaning pens after 4 or more calvings. Group maternity areas may be more difficult to clean after each calving compared with individual pens because they are larger and hold multiple animals at once.
Good maternity area cleanliness promotes cow comfort in addition to reducing disease risk. In mid-lactation, cows will avoid lying on wet substrate when possible and reduce their lying time up to 5 h per day when bedding is wet (
); thus, it is very important to keep the maternity area dry to improve cow comfort. To keep the maternity area clean and dry, it is recommended that fresh bedding be added daily and the whole pen be cleaned completely every 3 to 4 wk (
The majority of research on group maternity areas has focused on creating opportunities for isolation-seeking behavior for dairy cows to facilitate the expression of natural calving behaviors. Some cows kept on pasture or indoors will seek seclusion from pen mates as calving approaches, but this behavior may be affected by availability of resources for cows to hide. More research is encouraged that provides cows with additional opportunities to seek isolation in group pens, such as fixtures in the pen that allow for more than one cow to hide at a time, creating hiding spaces that allow cows to walk a long distance to separate from pen mates as they would in a more natural setting (e.g.,
), or creating an area that facilitates prolonged contact between the dam and calf.
Despite the emerging research focused on behavior in group maternity areas, there is a clear need for additional research to explore the effects of group maternity areas on the behavior and health of parturient cows and their calves. Research using cows kept in individual pens may be extrapolated to those in group settings; however, there are likely unique stressors that cows face as they undergo labor in a group that requires additional research. For example, effects of problems that may arise from limited space, high stocking densities, regrouping, and other social interactions on the success of a cow’s transition period are not well understood. We encourage more work aimed at developing group-housing systems that allow cows to express their natural behavior, while maintaining good hygiene and health for the dam and calf after calving.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A USDA–National Institute of Food and Agriculture–Agriculture and Food Research Initiative Foundation grant (grant no. 2016-67015-24734) from the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture funded K. Creutzinger’s graduate student stipend. We thank Peter Krawczel at University of Tennessee and Heather Dann at William H. Miner Agricultural Research Institute for their contributions to the overall ideas presented in this review. The authors of this paper have no financial or personal relationships with other people or organizations that could inappropriately influence or bias the content of this paper.
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Chapinal N.
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Herd-level risk factors for hock injuries in freestall-housed dairy cows in the northeastern United States and California..
The effects of social exchange between two groups of lactating primiparous heifers on milk production, dominance order, behavior and adrenocortical response..
Evaluation of nonesterified fatty acids and β-hydroxybutyrate in transition dairy cattle in the northeastern United States: Critical thresholds for prediction of clinical diseases..
Is an individual calving pen better than a group calving pen for preventing transmission of Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis in calves? Results from a field trial..
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